Monitoring for nature recovery and local change: survey methods and tools
Objective setting and multi-scale monitoring
Before choosing a survey method, be clear about what you want to find out.
Ask yourself:
- Which species, habitats or ecological features am I interested in?
- Am I trying to measure change at a single site or across a wider area?
- What type of change do I want to detect?
- What skills, time and resources are available?
- How often can the survey be repeated?
Different survey methods provide different types of information. Some focus on species abundance, others on species presence, distribution or habitat condition. In many cases, combining habitat, plant and species monitoring will provide a more complete picture of biodiversity change.
JNCC’s guide to Setting Biodiversity Monitoring Objectives is a useful resource when considering how to develop an effective monitoring programme.
Survey protocols and training resources
Plants and habitats
Why are they useful to monitor?
Plants and habitats often respond directly to environmental pressures, management activities and restoration actions, making them valuable indicators of ecological change. Changes in plant communities can provide evidence of shifts in habitat condition and can often be detected before changes become apparent in some animal groups. Habitat and vegetation monitoring can therefore provide a useful foundation for wider biodiversity monitoring programmes.
Monitoring methods
Recording occurrence and percentage cover of indicator species in subplots:
| Survey Detail | Guidance |
| What can the results tell you? | Diversity of plant species and habitat condition |
| Method description |
NPMS+ offers a framework to use National Plant Monitoring Scheme (NPMS) methodology for habitat and plant monitoring at sub-national scales and allows for self-selection of 1 km squares. It is based on lists of indicator species by habitat which can provide insights into overall habitat quality. Subplots should cover one type of habitat distinct from other plots where possible. Surveyors monitor the occurrence and percentage cover of all indicator species relevant to that habitat in each plot. Following NPMS+ guidance will help ensure that data are comparable with national datasets. |
| Difficulty | Plant ID knowledge or experience needed. Survey level can be matched to level of expertise. Training resources and guidance for all levels (including entry level) are available on the NPMS website. |
| Applicable scale | Subplot sizes can vary, and the number of plots can be modified to suit the scale of monitoring, making these methods easily adaptable to different scales. |
| Recording tools and data submission | Plant monitoring data can be recorded and managed through Plant Portal, which supports NPMS and NPMS+ surveys. Plant Portal provides access to survey resources and enables users to submit and manage plant monitoring records. |
Other tools are also available to support plant and habitat monitoring at local and landscape scales. For example, for broader habitat assessments, e‑Surveyor provides structured habitat survey modules and plant identification support, helping users assess habitat quality, monitor change over time, and understand the biodiversity value of habitats (https://www.ceh.ac.uk/data/e-tools/e-surveyor).
Insects
Why are they useful to monitor?
Insects such as butterflies are sensitive to subtle environmental changes making them good indicators of ecosystem health and an early indicator of change. Butterflies are found in nearly all UK habitats, are easily identifiable, and show more rapid changes than other taxa such as birds, allowing for a ubiquitous and sensitive indicator with a long history of records and research. Pollinating insects such as bees and hoverflies are also a vital component of our ecosystems and much of our food production depends on them, making it important to understand changes in their populations.
Different insect groups require different survey approaches. Local monitoring projects often focus either on indicator groups, such as butterflies, or on broader pollinator communities. The methods below outline protocols for different types of survey, which are robust and replicable methods for monitoring insects for local projects. Butterfly Conservation has also produced guidance for a range of approaches to monitor butterflies at a local scale, which may be helpful. UKCEH has also produced a comprehensive practical guide to pollinator monitoring which gives step-by-step guidance on setting up and carrying out pollinator surveys and provides more information on all pollinator-focused citizen-science methods available, as well as tips on which might be most appropriate to a project.
Monitoring Methods
Multi-Species Timed Counts (Butterflies):
| Survey Detail | Guidance |
| What can the results tell you? | Using the app with sufficient survey effort should allow users to produce meaningful information on frequency, distribution, occupancy, relative abundance, and encounter rate. |
| Method description | Surveyors carry out 15-minute multi-species surveys using the iRecord Butterflies app. The app logs the location of each sighting automatically while the surveyor logs species and number of sightings. Users can set up fixed sites, so multi-species timed counts can be repeated in the same location to produce an ongoing record. Counts can be recorded across a project area. These counts are designed to provide site-specific detailed information in areas with little recording history. |
| Difficulty | Designed to be accessible for those new to biodiversity recording management, however this is a new initiative without much written guidance or support in place. Knowledge of the species likely to be encountered is needed but guides and resources to aid butterfly identification are widely available including on the iRecord Butterflies app. |
| Applicable scale | The nature of 15-minute counts requires each survey area to be small, but the ability of the user to aggregate data post-survey means the project area, while it should be kept localised, can cover a wider area. For larger project areas, project managers may want to target particular habitats. |
| Recording tools and data submission | UKBMS monitor several species that are not adequately monitored through transect walks, if your data covers any of these species, you can contribute the data directly to the UKBMS database. Species records can also be submitted through iRecord (and consequently stored by the National Biodiversity Network) or submitted to Local Environmental Records Centres. |
Targeted counts (Butterflies):
| Survey Detail | Guidance |
| What can the results tell you? | Targeted counts provide distribution and abundance data for species where standard survey methodologies are not suited due to factors such as a targeted species’ very high dependence on a specific habitat or strong association with specific plant species only. |
| Method description | Counts can be targeted to specific species, life stages, and habitats, for example of adult butterflies, or egg and larval web counts. Observers count all target specimens within a given area. See specific guidance for different surveys recommended by UKBMS on their resources webpage to ensure that your data are comparable to larger datasets. |
| Difficulty | May be suitable for those without prior experience, where training from someone with experience is available. If the survey is focused on a single species, this may be easier for beginners. |
| Applicable scale | Targeted counts can be very localised and need to target an area where the species occur. At small scales, it may be relevant to survey all relevant habitats or sites. As the area increases, an effective means of sampling the target habitats is needed. The survey methods remain the same regardless of scale. |
| Recording tools and data submission | UKBMS monitor several species that are not adequately monitored through transect walks, if your data covers any of these species, you can contribute the data directly to the UKBMS database. Species records can also be submitted through iRecord (and consequently stored by the National Biodiversity Network) or submitted to Local Environmental Records Centres. |
Transect walks (Butterflies):
| Survey Detail | Guidance |
| What can the results tell you? | Transects provide information on the distribution and abundance of species in a given area and can be repeated to show how these change over time. |
| Method description | Surveyors walk along defined transect routes, counting and identifying all target species that they see (within 2.5m either side, and 5m ahead). Transect walks can be tailored to specific questions and needs by focusing on a single or small selection of species. Transect walks are a standard survey method in the UKBMS; follow their guidelines to make your data comparable to the national schemes. |
| Difficulty | Suitable for those with butterfly ID knowledge and experience. Those with some ID ability and knowledge may do well with a more experienced partner. Training recommended in identifying butterflies on the wing. |
| Applicable scale | Transect lengths can vary, and the number of transects can be modified to suit the scale of monitoring, making these methods easily adaptable to different scales. |
| Recording tools and data submission | You can add a new transect to UKBMS’s network to contribute your data to their database if it meets the requirements set out in their guidelines. |
Transect walks (Bumblebees):
| Survey Detail | Guidance |
| What can the results tell you? | Transects provide information on the distribution and abundance of species in a given area and can be repeated to show how these change over time. |
| Method description | Surveyors walk along defined transect routes, counting and identifying all bumblebee species that they see (within 2m either side, 2m from the ground and 4m ahead). Transect walks can be tailored to specific questions and needs by focusing on a single or small selection of species. Transect walks are the standard survey method of BeeWalks; follow their guidelines to make your data comparable to the national schemes. |
| Difficulty | Can be undertaken by surveyors with basic bumblebee identification skills. There are online and in-person training events available. |
| Applicable scale | Transect lengths can vary, and the number of transects can be modified to suit the scale of monitoring, making these methods easily adaptable to different scales. |
| Recording tools and data submission | You can add a new transect to BeeWalk’s network to contribute your data to their database if it meets the requirements set out in their guidelines. |
Flower Insect Timed (FIT) counts (Pollinators):
| Survey Detail | Guidance |
| What can the results tell you? | FIT counts measure the diversity of insects visiting nectar bearing plants in flower. FIT counts can provide broad information on pollinator communities and be repeated to measure changes in local biodiversity over time or differences between locations. However, data collection and survey effort needs to be designed with the relevant question(s) in mind (see Bane & Pocock 2023, p26-32). |
| Method description | Surveyors monitor the number of insects visiting a focal plant within a 50 x 50cm patch and within a 10-minute period. This method was developed as part of the UK Pollinator Monitoring Programme (PoMS) scheme; see their website for further details on methodology. |
| Difficulty | Suitable for those without prior knowledge or experience. |
| Applicable scale | FIT counts can be conducted anywhere, and multiple counting points can be systematically mapped in larger sites to make the method applicable to all scales. |
| Recording tools and data submission | Data can be stored via an app developed by PoMS. Data can be added directly to the app in the field, and you can use your phone’s GPS to automatically record your location to facilitate analyses. Your data can then be viewed and edited on the PoMS website and you can set up or contribute to specific projects. You can also view other counts across the UK. |
Birds
Why are they useful to monitor?
Birds are comparatively easy to monitor and are widely used as indicators of environmental change. Monitoring birds can help identify changes in habitat quality and biodiversity, although their mobility means that changes should be interpreted alongside habitat and management information.
Birds require a variety of monitoring methods to survey different species and their habitats effectively. While some birds are best monitored during their breeding season, others are surveyed during the winter months. BTO has produced a comprehensive practical guide to bird monitoring at a local scale which gives guidance on setting up and carrying out bird surveys. The methods used in national monitoring schemes are often applicable to local scale monitoring objectives, though may require adaptation. National schemes may opt for taking a smaller number of samples (survey visits) over many sites to derive inferences at large scales. To meet local objectives may require more intensive monitoring at a smaller number of locations, even just one location may be necessary.
Monitoring Methods
The methods below can be adapted for local bird monitoring programmes. Additional survey approaches are available through BTO guidance, but these methods are among the most widely used for monitoring biodiversity change and nature recovery. Training for bird surveys is available through the BTO website.
Line-transect distance sampling:
| Survey Detail | Guidance |
| What can the results tell you? | Recording species along transects is used to estimate population size and density, especially during the breeding season when birds are more sedentary. Repeated surveys across years will enable trend production. When transects are aligned with habitat areas, changes in abundance can be attributed to change in land use/management. |
| Method description | A site can be surveyed with a series of systematically placed line transects. Surveyors walk the transect and record every (target) bird they see or hear within pre-determined distance bands from the transect that the bird was seen or heard in. Variations include point sampling for songbirds where the observer remains stationary at predetermined points rather than walking along a transect, and territory mapping where the location of singing males is mapped to determine territory size and density. See BTO guidance on how to make your data comparable to Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data. |
| Difficulty | Suitable for those with some experience of bird identification. |
| Applicable scale | The number of transects (or points) used and the length of these transects can vary depending on survey design, meaning that this method is applicable to all scales. Line transects are most widely applicable at ‘medium’ to ‘large’ scale areas. Transects can be laid out to give near complete coverage on smaller areas (e.g. 150–1,000 ha) or to sample a subset of larger areas (1,000 – 10,000 ha). Very large areas (e.g. large estates, National Landscapes), can be sampled in a similar way to the Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) 1km squares, as applied to the Chilterns National Landscape – Tracking the Impact. While national monitoring uses these longer transects, the scale of some local scale monitoring initiatives precludes the use of transects. In this situation point counts can be used, as the number of survey points can be adjusted to the shape and size of most survey plots. |
| Recording tools and data submission | BTO’s BBS and Winter Bird Survey (WBS) data portals accept transect data but only for pre-allocated survey transects. Data from non-BBS/WBS transect points can be uploaded to BirdTrack or iRecord but there is no online mechanism to capture the surrounding context for the data e.g. distance sampling methods. |
Site census surveys:
| Survey Detail | Guidance |
| What can the results tell you? | Site census (aka look-see) surveys provide information on population size and distribution in areas with good vantage points where the whole site is visible at once. This method is particularly useful for surveying birds outside of the breeding season where large numbers of birds gather such as at feeding sites or roosts such as in the BTO’s Wetland Bird Survey (WeBS). When applied to birds which are aggregated in time and/or space, counting of all sites can be used for a population census (e.g., the Goose and Swan Monitoring Programme - Icelandic-breeding Goose Census) This method can also be used to estimate species’ productivity by counting nests, particularly in colonial breeding birds such as seabirds, rook, herons and swifts. This application of the method is used in the National Seabird Monitoring Programme (SMP) and the BTO Heronries Census |
| Method description | Surveyors, trained to identify different species of bird, view the whole area of a predefined site, and record the number of all birds (or if relevant for the study, selected target species only) that they can see at the same time. Following BTO’s guidance will make your data comparable to national datasets such as WeBS. |
| Difficulty | Suitable for those who have been trained to identify the species of interest. No other experience required but surveyors should note that certain species and nests are protected by law and require a licence for monitoring. |
| Applicable scale | The defined survey area can vary in scale, and larger areas can be broken down into multiple smaller areas, meaning that this method is easily applicable to local monitoring. |
| Recording tools and data submission | Surveys carried out on wetlands can be readily integrated into the Wetland Bird Survey (WeBS) and breeding seabird colony counts can potentially be added to the SMP. Surveys carried out in other areas / habitats can be uploaded to and stored in BirdTrack. |
Bats
Why are they useful to monitor?
Bats are sensitive to changes in habitat structure, landscape connectivity and insect availability, making them useful indicators of environmental change.
Local monitoring can be used to understand how bat activity responds to habitat restoration, management interventions and landscape-scale nature recovery. A range of established methods are available, many of which are supported by guidance developed through the National Bat Monitoring Programme (NBMP).
Monitoring Methods
The methods below are commonly used in local bat monitoring programmes. They draw on guidance developed through the NBMP and can be adapted to suit different monitoring objectives and scales. The number of survey locations, detectors or survey routes will depend on the size of the area being monitored, the habitats present and the level of change being investigated.
For guidance on setting up Passive Acoustic Monitoring (PAM) there is some useful guidance here:
- Designing effective survey and sampling protocols for passive acoustic monitoring as part of the national bat monitoring (JNCC Report)
- Guidelines for passive acoustics surveys of bats in woodland (Bat Conservation Trust)
The Bat Conservation Trust (BCT) has also produced a guide to bat emergence surveys.
Training in all below methods can be found on the BCT website.
Passive acoustic surveys:
| Survey Detail | Guidance |
| What can the results tell you? | Bat species identification, presence, and activity levels within a given distance from a passive acoustic monitoring device. |
| Method description | Acoustic monitoring devices are set up to automatically record bat calls, to identify all bats detected by the device. |
| Difficulty | Suitable for anyone without prior experience, where training with the monitoring devices is provided. BCT run citizen science surveys which use passive acoustic sensors and are a good introduction to this type of survey. The BCT guidelines for passive acoustic surveys in woodland also gives good advice for PAM deployment. |
| Applicable scale | Any scale from single site monitoring through to national surveys. |
| Recording tools and data submission | BCT has a data pipeline that will process the audio files generated through their passive acoustic surveys. The records will be added to the national database and made available to those submitting the records. Software and data pipelines also exist to analyse other recordings. |
Bat detector transect walks:
| Survey Detail | Guidance |
| What can the results tell you? | Bat species identification, presence, and activity levels along a transect. |
| Method description | Surveyors walk along transects, stopping at regular intervals to record the number of passes of different bat species in a given time period using a bat detector. NBMP protocols can be used to support survey design and improve comparability with other datasets. |
| Difficulty | Suitable for those without prior experience, where training with a bat detector has been provided. |
| Applicable scale | The number of transects used and the length of these transects can vary depending on survey design, meaning that this method is applicable to all scales. If the transect data were to be analysed together with or contribute to a national monitoring dataset, the transect length and site selection would have to match that of the national scheme. |
| Recording tools and data submission | Surveys carried out as part of NBMP surveys feed into the national dataset. Data can be stored via the NBMP portal. |
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