C5. Birds of the wider countryside and at sea

Figure C5aia. Breeding farmland birds in the UK, 1970 to 2022

Figure C5aib. Long-term and short-term changes in individual species' trends for farmland birds in the UK, 1970 to 2021

Figure C5bia. Breeding woodland birds in the UK, 1970 to 2022

Figure C5bib. Long-term and short-term changes in individual species' trends for woodland birds in the UK, 1970 to 2021

Figure C5cia. Breeding water and wetland birds in the UK, 1975 to 2022

Figure C5cib. Long-term and short-term changes in individual species' trends for water and wetland birds in the UK, 1975 to 2021

Figure C5dia. Breeding seabirds in the UK, 1986 to 2019

Figure C5dib. Long-term and short-term changes in individual species' trends for seabirds in the UK, 1986 to 2018

Figure C5eia. Wintering waterbirds in the UK, 1975/76 to 2021/22

Figure C5eib. Long-term and short-term changes in individual species trends for wintering waterbirds in the UK, 1975/76 to 2020/21

Assessment of change in bird populations

Notes for Assessment of Change table:

1. Whilst latest year percentage changes in the indices are reported based on the most recent smoothed data point (2022), the formal long-term and short-term assessments of the statistical significance of these changes are made using the smoothed data to 2021. This is because the most recent smoothed data point (2022) is likely to change in next year’s update when additional data are included for 2023.
2. Analysis of the underlying trends is undertaken by the data providers. Smoothed data are available for farmland, woodland, wetland and wintering waterbirds, but not for seabirds.
3. The change assessment for the seabirds measure has been removed until a way of assessing variability is devised. This follows recommendations in a quality assurance science panel report, dated January 2016.
4. Due to the impacts of COVID-19, there are no unsmoothed data available for wintering waterbirds in 2020/21, as such a latest year change assessment is unavailable.

 The long-term decline of the farmland bird indicator in the UK has been driven mainly by the decline of those species that are restricted to, or highly dependent on, farmland habitats (the ‘specialists’, which account for 12 of the 19 species in the indicator). Between 1970 and 2022, the index for farmland specialists declined by 72% while for farmland generalists it declined by 22%. Of the 12 farmland specialists, five (corn bunting, grey partridge, starling, turtle dove, and tree sparrow) have experienced severe declines in excess of 80% since 1970 due largely to changes in farmland practices. Two farmland specialists (stock dove and goldfinch) have more than doubled over the same period, illustrating how responses to pressures varies among species. Generalist species have fared better than specialists although the rate of decline for generalists has been similar to the specialists in the short term.  Amongst the generalists, woodpigeon and jackdaw populations have more than doubled relative to 1970 levels whereas three of the generalist species have declined over the long-term period: greenfinch by 69%, yellow wagtail by 66% and kestrel by 54%. Of the remaining two generalist species: rook numbers have not changed overall, and reed bunting has declined at a lower rate (-33% over the long-term). Overall, farmland birds have been impacted by changes in the suitability of farmland for breeding and wintering as well as pressures faced by those that undertake long migrations. However, most farmers can and do take positive steps to conserve birds on their land. In particular, a number of incentive schemes encourage improved environmental stewardship in farming, with some measures specifically designed to help stabilise and recover farmland bird populations. These include the provision of over-wintered stubbles and planted wild bird crop covers to provide seed in the winter, uncropped margins on arable fields and sympathetic management of hedgerows. There is growing evidence that such action can deliver local recoveries in farmland bird populations and thus, if delivered at appropriate scale, wider recovery. Changes in numbers experienced by some species may, to a lesser extent, be further driven by other pressures. For example, there is evidence of an adverse impact from disease for some species, most notably greenfinch.

 The woodland bird index contains data for 37 species. The overall trend masks different underlying trends for specialist species, those which are highly dependent on woodland habitats, and generalist species, which are found in a wide range of habitats, including woodland. In 2022, the woodland specialists index was 55% lower than in 1970, while the index for woodland generalists was 5% lower than in 1970. Populations of 2 woodland generalist species (bullfinch and song thrush) have declined by more than 45% since 1970. Only one species, long-tailed tit, has increased (by 90%) in this period. Four woodland specialists, lesser spotted woodpecker, spotted flycatcher, capercaillie and willow tit, have declined by over 90% relative to 1970 levels. In contrast, populations of nuthatch have more than trebled over the same period and both blackcap and great spotted woodpecker have more than quadrupled in numbers. Trends in long-distance migrants may possibly reflect changing conditions on their wintering grounds whereas declines in residents such as lesser spotted woodpecker, willow tit and capercaillie must be due to factors on their breeding grounds. Probable causes for this include a lack of woodland management (including the cessation of traditional practices such as coppicing) and increased deer browsing pressure, both of which result in a reduced diversity of woodland structure and reduced availability of suitable nesting and foraging habitats. 

 The breeding water and wetland bird measure can be disaggregated to four sub-habitat indicators (birds of fast flowing water, birds of slow and standing water, birds of reedbeds and birds of wet grasslands) although each is composed of relatively few species. The index for birds of reedbeds is made up of 4 species, and is showing the most positive trend of these groups. In 2022 it was 16% higher than in 1975. In the short term it increased by 8%. In birds of slow flowing and standing water, which includes mallard, the index was 12% higher than in 1975. However, there has been a 14% decrease in the short-term period between 2016 and 2021, reflecting a negative turn-around in the fortunes of this group in the last decade. The index of birds of wet grassland, including a number of wader species, has decreased by 51% since 1975, and the index for birds of fast flowing water (including dipper) decreased by 20% compared to 1975. 

 The breeding seabird index has not been updated since the publication in 2020. Therefore the trends presented here precede the onset of avian flu in Britain’s seabirds and the devastating effects this has had on many species.

The seabird measure is focussed on the marine environment. Accordingly, for a number of species (e.g. herring gull, great cormorant), the indicator uses data for coastal populations (colonies within 5 km of the coastline) only, rather than data from all breeding areas of these species. This focusses the indicator on changes at the coast and in marine waters but means changes in inland populations are not taken into account. In 2019, the breeding seabird index in the UK was 24% lower than in 1986, slightly above the lowest level ever recorded (of 31% lower than 1986, recorded in 2013). Despite fluctuations, the indicator was largely flat from 1986 until the early-2000s when seabird numbers started to decline and the long-term trend (to 2018) shows a significant 28% decrease. However, more recently the unsmoothed breeding seabird index has increased, non-significantly, by 3% between 2013 and 2018. One of the 13 seabird species has increased since the beginning of the index in 1986; razorbill numbers have more than doubled. Two species have declined strongly since 1986; Arctic skua by 80% and black-legged kittiwake by 64%. The decline of black-legged kittiwakes has been linked to climate change impacts on marine food webs, and fishery pressures. However, there has been some improvement in the short term, during which black-legged kittiwakes have shown a strong increase, of 20% between 2013 and 2018. In addition to black-legged kittiwakes another two of the 13 seabird species have increased strongly between 2013 and 2018; razorbill and sandwich tern by 35% and 26% respectively. Numbers of great black-backed gull are decreasing strongly by 32% in the short term, although the long-term trend is a weak decline. Some seabirds have been impacted through predation by invasive non-native mammals such as rats and mink, though successful eradication programmes have been implemented in a number of areas and populations of some species have undergone local recoveries as a result.

 The wintering waterbird measure increased steadily from the 1975 to 1976 baseline and peaked in 1996, and has largely declined since, falling by 9% between 2016/2017 and 2021/2022. The separate wader and wildfowl indices show broadly similar patterns of increase followed by decrease, although the change in the wildfowl indicator has been greater. Overall, the wildfowl index has nearly doubled (97% increase) and the wader index has increased by 66% since 1975/1976. However, both peaked in the late 1990s and have declined subsequently; between 2016/2017 and 2021/2022, the index for wildfowl declined by 11% and the index for waders declined by 5%. Long-term decreases were observed for the Bewick’s swan, European white-fronted goose, scaup, and pochard which declined by 87%, 70%, 68% and 60% respectively. Four of the 13 wildfowl species showing the strongest increases are: the British/Irish greylag goose, gadwall, whooper swan and Svalbard light-bellied Brent goose. The British/Irish greylag goose and gadwall are estimated to be increasing in wintering numbers by 37-fold and 14-fold respectively. Wintering numbers of whooper swan and Svalbard light-bellied Brent goose are also estimated to have increased by more than 10-fold. Amongst waders, 33% of the wader species increased, 60% showed little change and 7% declined. The indices for avocet and black-tailed godwit showed the strongest increases, wintering numbers now more than 12 and 9 times what they used to be (and avocet is only included in the indicator since 1989/1990). Dunlin have shown the steepest decline, declining by 49% since the winter of 1975/1976, and wintering numbers of ringed plover are now 39% lower.

Aichi Targets for which this is a primary indicator

Strategic Goal B. Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use.

Target 7: By 2020, areas under agriculture, aquaculture and forestry are managed sustainably, ensuring conservation of biodiversity.

Strategic Goal C. To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity.

Target 12: By 2020, the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented and their conservation status, particularly of those most in decline, has been improved and sustained.

Aichi Targets for which this is a relevant indicator

Strategic Goal B. Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use.

Target 5: By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats, including forests, is at least halved and where feasible brought close to zero, and degradation and fragmentation is significantly reduced.

Strategic Goal C. To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity.

Target 11: By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscape and seascapes.